1 Executive Summary
This report presents the results of our second engagement with Skale to review Skale Manager code that manages the nodes and schain grouping and rotations. The delegation, validator and token functions of the SKALE Manager system were previously audited by ConsenSys Diligence.
The review was conducted over two weeks, from Oct 19, 2020 to Nov 6, 2020 by Sergii Kravchenko and Shayan Eskandari.
During the first week, we got a walk through on the code, reviewed the overall design and started the cryptographic review in parallel.
During the second week, the code was updated by Skale team, adding BountyV2.sol
and its implementation to the rest of the Skale code base. We had to review some of the changed code through out the rest of the files, and started working on the new Bounty system.
During the third week [the cryptography audit](./appendices/SKALE Audit V2.pdf) was completed and we drafted a report for the Skale team to review.
2 Scope
Our review focused on the commit hash cf4a07a5198b387fd128e1863a26bbfc789856c4
.
2.1 Documentation
- Whitepaper: https://skale.network/whitepaper
Overview:
- Trusted validators register “Nodes” in the Network.
- Each node is allocated “Spaces” (up to 128 units per node) and this is managed by SKALE Manager, and allocated out as users request “skale chains” of 3 sizes: small (1/128), medium (1/32) and large (1).
- Skale Chains are requested by users who stake/deposit SKL tokens. Successful requests form “SKALE Chain groups” of 16 randomly chosen nodes with appropriate allocated space (can be any 3n+1, default is 16 nodes, each node with 1/x space allocated)
- Nodes in SKALE Chain groups may be rotated over time.
- SKALE Chain initialization and rotation perform DKG so that a threshold of nodes sign messages in the Network and on each schain.
Blog posts:
- https://skale.network/blog/the-skale-network-primer/
- https://skale.network/blog/containerization-the-future-of-decentralized-infrastructure/
- https://skale.network/blog/containerization-the-future-of-decentralized-infrastructure-2/
Cryptography related articles:
- https://medium.com/skale/bls-deep-dive-793a4e8a6f4e
- https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F3-540-48910-X_21.pdf
- https://www.iacr.org/archive/asiacrypt2001/22480516.pdf
- https://www.iacr.org/archive/pkc2003/25670031/25670031.pdf
2.2 Objectives
Together with the Skale team, we identified the following priorities for our review:
- Ensure that the system is implemented consistently with the intended functionality, and without unintended edge cases.
- Identify known vulnerabilities particular to smart contract systems, as outlined in our Smart Contract Best Practices, and the Smart Contract Weakness Classification Registry.
- Cryptography implementations
3 Recommendations
During the course of our review, we made the following recommendations:
3.1 Reorder functions with hardcoded values
Description
There are many initialized functions in different contracts that have many hardcoded values for critical system variables. It is suggested to move these functions to top of the contract for better visibility and reducing the possibility of future error on deployment.
Examples
code/contracts/BountyV2.sol:L173-L180
function initialize(address contractManagerAddress) public override initializer {
Permissions.initialize(contractManagerAddress);
_nextEpoch = 0;
_epochPool = 0;
_bountyWasPaidInCurrentEpoch = 0;
bountyReduction = false;
nodeCreationWindowSeconds = 3 * SECONDS_PER_DAY;
}
code/contracts/ConstantsHolder.sol:L210-L225
function initialize(address contractsAddress) public override initializer {
Permissions.initialize(contractsAddress);
msr = 0;
rewardPeriod = 2592000;
allowableLatency = 150000;
deltaPeriod = 3600;
checkTime = 300;
launchTimestamp = uint(-1);
rotationDelay = 12 hours;
proofOfUseLockUpPeriodDays = 90;
proofOfUseDelegationPercentage = 50;
limitValidatorsPerDelegator = 20;
firstDelegationsMonth = 0;
complaintTimelimit = 1800;
}
code/contracts/Nodes.sol:L676-L682
function initialize(address contractsAddress) public override initializer {
Permissions.initialize(contractsAddress);
numberOfActiveNodes = 0;
numberOfLeavingNodes = 0;
numberOfLeftNodes = 0;
}
3.2 Test suite with gas usage estimation
Description
As also mentioned in issue 5.3, many functionalities in the code bases has high gas usage. We recommend implementation of proper gas usage estimation in the test suite to make sure none of the tested work flows will exceed the block gas limit.
Our suggestion is to use eth-gas-reporter as it is easy to integrate it with current Truffle test suite.
3.3 [Optimization] Reduce gas cost for error messages
Description
There are some instances in the codebase that string concatenation strConcat
is used to populate a string for the error messages. Specially in the scenarios that these are in the for loops, it can become expensive to run, specially given that these concatenations will happen in every round and not just the failure workflow.
Examples
code/contracts/NodeRotation.sol:L87-L104
for (uint i = 0; i < schains.length; i++) {
Rotation memory rotation = rotations[schains[i]];
if (rotation.nodeIndex == nodeIndex && now < rotation.freezeUntil) {
continue;
}
string memory schainName = schainsInternal.getSchainName(schains[i]);
string memory revertMessage = "Node cannot rotate on Schain ";
revertMessage = revertMessage.strConcat(schainName);
revertMessage = revertMessage.strConcat(", occupied by Node ");
revertMessage = revertMessage.strConcat(rotation.nodeIndex.uint2str());
string memory dkgRevert = "DKG process did not finish on schain ";
ISkaleDKG skaleDKG = ISkaleDKG(contractManager.getContract("SkaleDKG"));
require(
skaleDKG.isLastDKGSuccessful(keccak256(abi.encodePacked(schainName))),
dkgRevert.strConcat(schainName));
require(rotation.freezeUntil < now, revertMessage);
_startRotation(schains[i], nodeIndex);
}
Recommendation
For the error messages, it is suggested to either use error codes (with UI translation to error messages), or in the example above you can also use abi.encodePacked(str1, str2, str3)
.
3.4 Review the Code Quality recommendations in Appendix 1
Other comments related to readability and best practices are listed in Appendix 1
4 Security Specification
This section describes, from a security perspective, the expected behavior of the system under audit. It is not a substitute for documentation. The purpose of this section is to identify specific security properties that were validated by the audit team.
4.1 Actors
Overall Skale manager is currently a permissioned system (with intention to progressively decentralize over time), meaning that only the actors below have the ability to configure and interact with the system. The rest of the users, can read and use the verification methods on the contracts to make sure the nodes are running as they should be.
The relevant actors are listed below with their respective abilities:
-
Owner
- Many permissions in out of scope contracts (e.g.
ValidatorService
,TokenState
) that can directly affect the functionalities of the overall system. - Call any external function with the modifier
allow
. - Set penalty for a given offence
setPenalty()
- Populate Bounty for all specific nodes
populateBountyV2()
. - Enable and Disable Bounty reduction
enableBountyReduction()
. - Rotate an schain, skipping the set delay
skipRotationDelay()
. - Can set and replace (upgrade) any smart contract in the system
setContractsAddress()
. - Can set and replace any constant (System-wide variables) in the system
ConstantHolder.sol
.
- Many permissions in out of scope contracts (e.g.
-
Admin
- Some permissions in out of scope contracts (e.g.
ValidatorService
) that can directly affect the functionalities of the overall system. - Delete schain entirely by root
deleteSchainByRoot()
. - Can set/remove a node from maintenance.
- Сan release slashed tokens by calling
forgive()
.
- Some permissions in out of scope contracts (e.g.
-
Node
- Create a node if possible
CreateNode()
–>checkPossibilityCreatingNode()
. Note that the node details (IP, Port, etc) cannot be changed after initial creation. - Can get a bounty.
- Can set/remove the node from maintenance.
- Exit the node.
- Participate in DKG process.
- Create a node if possible
-
Validator
- Can link the node’s address.
- Can exit a node that belongs to the validator.
- Can set/remove a node from maintenance.
- Note that the node details (IP, Port, etc) cannot be changed after initial creation
-
Everyone
- Add/remove schain.
4.2 Important Security Properties
The following is a non-exhaustive list of security properties that were discussed in this audit:
- A random number is used to select a node for a group and generate the groups. It should be noted that this random number uses a hash of the previous block with some other variables, and it could potentially be manipulated by the miners. Although, as it does not have any obvious security implications, it was not reported as an issue.
- The control over the system is currently assigned to multiple parties by the
owner
address, which is a multi-sig. This address can change anything in the system: call any external function with the modifierallow
and change any contract addresses (See Actors for more details).
4.3 Cryptography Audit
- In addition to the issues reported below, here is the cryptography audit report as an attachment.
5 Issues
Each issue has an assigned severity:
- Minor issues are subjective in nature. They are typically suggestions around best practices or readability. Code maintainers should use their own judgment as to whether to address such issues.
- Medium issues are objective in nature but are not security vulnerabilities. These should be addressed unless there is a clear reason not to.
- Major issues are security vulnerabilities that may not be directly exploitable or may require certain conditions in order to be exploited. All major issues should be addressed.
- Critical issues are directly exploitable security vulnerabilities that need to be fixed.
5.1 Every node gets a full validator’s bounty Major ✓ Fixed
Resolution
This issue is addressed in Bug/skale 3273 formula fix 435 and SKALE-3273 Fix BountyV2 populating error 438.
The main change is related to how bounties are calculated for each validator. Below are a few notes on these pull requests:
nodesByValidator
mapping is no longer used in the codebase and the non-zero values are deleted whencalculateBounty()
is called for a specific validator. The mapping is kept in the code for compatible storage layout in upgradable proxies.- Some functions such as
populate()
was developed for the transition to the upgraded contracts (rewrite_effectiveDelegatedSum
values based on the new calculation formula). This function is not part of this review and will be removed in the future updates. - Unlike the old architecture,
nodesByValidator[validatorId]
is no longer used within the system to calculate_effectiveDelegatedSum
and bounties. This is replaced by using overall staked amount and duration. - If a validator does not claim their bounty during a month, it is considered as a misbehave and her bounty goes to the bounty pool for the next month.
Description
To get the bounty, every node calls the getBounty
function of the SkaleManager
contract. This function can be called once per month. The size of the bounty is defined in the BountyV2
contract in the _calculateMaximumBountyAmount
function:
code/contracts/BountyV2.sol:L213-L221
return epochPoolSize
.add(_bountyWasPaidInCurrentEpoch)
.mul(
delegationController.getAndUpdateEffectiveDelegatedToValidator(
nodes.getValidatorId(nodeIndex),
currentMonth
)
)
.div(effectiveDelegatedSum);
The problem is that this amount actually represents the amount that should be paid to the validator of that node. But each node will get this amount. Additionally, the amount of validator’s bounty should also correspond to the number of active nodes, while this formula only uses the amount of delegated funds.
Recommendation
Every node should get only their parts of the bounty.
5.2 A node exit prevents some other nodes from exiting for some period Medium Pending
Resolution
Skale team’s comment:
known issue, acknowledged, assigned as the work for the next few months as an improvement. Please assign as “Pending”.
Description
When a node wants to exit, the nodeExit
function should be called as many times, as there are schains in the node. Each time one schain is getting removed from the node. During every call, all the active schains are getting frozen for 12 hours.
code/contracts/NodeRotation.sol:L84-L105
function freezeSchains(uint nodeIndex) external allow("SkaleManager") {
SchainsInternal schainsInternal = SchainsInternal(contractManager.getContract("SchainsInternal"));
bytes32[] memory schains = schainsInternal.getActiveSchains(nodeIndex);
for (uint i = 0; i < schains.length; i++) {
Rotation memory rotation = rotations[schains[i]];
if (rotation.nodeIndex == nodeIndex && now < rotation.freezeUntil) {
continue;
}
string memory schainName = schainsInternal.getSchainName(schains[i]);
string memory revertMessage = "Node cannot rotate on Schain ";
revertMessage = revertMessage.strConcat(schainName);
revertMessage = revertMessage.strConcat(", occupied by Node ");
revertMessage = revertMessage.strConcat(rotation.nodeIndex.uint2str());
string memory dkgRevert = "DKG process did not finish on schain ";
ISkaleDKG skaleDKG = ISkaleDKG(contractManager.getContract("SkaleDKG"));
require(
skaleDKG.isLastDKGSuccessful(keccak256(abi.encodePacked(schainName))),
dkgRevert.strConcat(schainName));
require(rotation.freezeUntil < now, revertMessage);
_startRotation(schains[i], nodeIndex);
}
}
Because of that, no other node that is running one of these schains can exit during that period. In the worst-case scenario, one malicious node has 128 Schains and calls nodeExit
every 12 hours. That means that some nodes will not be able to exit for 64 days.
Recommendation
Make node exiting process less synchronous.
5.3 Removing a node require multiple transactions and may be very expensive Medium Pending
Resolution
Skale team’s comment:
Acknowledged, assigned as the work for the next few months (improvement). Please assign it as “Pending”.
Description
When removing a node from the network, the owner should redistribute all the schains that are currently on that node to the other nodes. To do so, the validator should call the nodeExit
function of the SkaleManager
contract. In this function, only one schain is going to be removed from the node. So the node would have to call the nodeExit
function as many times as there are schains in the node. Every call iterates over every potential node that can be used as a replacement (like in https://github.com/ConsenSys/skale-network-audit-2020-10/issues/3).
In addition to that, the first call will iterate over all schains in the node, make 4 SSTORE operations and external calls for each schain:
code/contracts/NodeRotation.sol:L204-L210
function _startRotation(bytes32 schainIndex, uint nodeIndex) private {
ConstantsHolder constants = ConstantsHolder(contractManager.getContract("ConstantsHolder"));
rotations[schainIndex].nodeIndex = nodeIndex;
rotations[schainIndex].newNodeIndex = nodeIndex;
rotations[schainIndex].freezeUntil = now.add(constants.rotationDelay());
waitForNewNode[schainIndex] = true;
}
This may hit the block gas limit even easier than issue 5.4.
If the first transaction does not hit the block’s gas limit, the maximum price of deleting a node would be BLOCK_GAS_COST * 128. At the moment, it’s around $50,000.
Recommendation
Optimize the process of deleting a node, so it can’t hit the gas limit in one transaction, and the overall price should be cheaper.
5.4 Adding a new schain may potentially hit the gas limit Medium Pending
Resolution
Skale team’s comment:
Acknowledged, assigned as the work for the next few months (improvement) Please assign as “Pending”.
Description
When adding a new schain, a group of random 16 nodes is randomly selected to run that schain. In order to do so, the _generateGroup
function iterates over all the nodes that can be used for that purpose:
code/contracts/SchainsInternal.sol:L522-L541
function _generateGroup(bytes32 schainId, uint numberOfNodes) private returns (uint[] memory nodesInGroup) {
Nodes nodes = Nodes(contractManager.getContract("Nodes"));
uint8 space = schains[schainId].partOfNode;
nodesInGroup = new uint[](numberOfNodes);
uint[] memory possibleNodes = isEnoughNodes(schainId);
require(possibleNodes.length >= nodesInGroup.length, "Not enough nodes to create Schain");
uint ignoringTail = 0;
uint random = uint(keccak256(abi.encodePacked(uint(blockhash(block.number.sub(1))), schainId)));
for (uint i = 0; i < nodesInGroup.length; ++i) {
uint index = random % (possibleNodes.length.sub(ignoringTail));
uint node = possibleNodes[index];
nodesInGroup[i] = node;
_swap(possibleNodes, index, possibleNodes.length.sub(ignoringTail).sub(1));
++ignoringTail;
_exceptionsForGroups[schainId][node] = true;
addSchainForNode(node, schainId);
require(nodes.removeSpaceFromNode(node, space), "Could not remove space from Node");
}
If the total number of nodes exceeds around a few thousands, adding a schain may hit the block gas limit.
Recommendation
Avoid iterating over all nodes when selecting a random node for a schain.
5.5 Typos Minor
Description
There are a few typos in the contract source code. This could result in unforeseeable issues in the future development cycles.
Examples
succesful instead of successful:
code/contracts/SkaleDKG.sol:L77-L78
mapping(bytes32 => uint) public lastSuccesfulDKG;
code/contracts/SkaleDKG.sol:L372-L373
_setSuccesfulDKG(schainId);
}
and many other instances of succesful
through out the code.
5.6 Redundant Checks in some flows
Description
The workflows in the Skale network are complicated and multi layers (multiple calls to different modules). Some checks are done in this process that are redundant and can be removed, based on the current code and the workflow.
Examples
An example of this redundancy, is when completing a node exit procedure. completeExit()
checks if the node status is leaving and if so continues:
code/contracts/Nodes.sol:L309-L311
require(isNodeLeaving(nodeIndex), "Node is not Leaving");
_setNodeLeft(nodeIndex);
However, in _setNodeLeft()
it has an if clause for the status being Active, which will never be true.
code/contracts/Nodes.sol:L795-L803
function _setNodeLeft(uint nodeIndex) private {
nodesIPCheck[nodes[nodeIndex].ip] = false;
nodesNameCheck[keccak256(abi.encodePacked(nodes[nodeIndex].name))] = false;
delete nodesNameToIndex[keccak256(abi.encodePacked(nodes[nodeIndex].name))];
if (nodes[nodeIndex].status == NodeStatus.Active) {
numberOfActiveNodes--;
} else {
numberOfLeavingNodes--;
}
Recommendation
To properly check the code flows for unreachable code and remove redundant checks.
5.7 Presence of empty function ✓ Fixed
Resolution
Description
estimateBounty()
is declared but neither implemented nor used in any part of the current code base.
Examples
code/contracts/BountyV2.sol:L142-L159
function estimateBounty(uint /* nodeIndex */) external pure returns (uint) {
revert("Not implemented");
// ConstantsHolder constantsHolder = ConstantsHolder(contractManager.getContract("ConstantsHolder"));
// Nodes nodes = Nodes(contractManager.getContract("Nodes"));
// TimeHelpers timeHelpers = TimeHelpers(contractManager.getContract("TimeHelpers"));
// uint stagePoolSize;
// uint nextStage;
// (stagePoolSize, nextStage) = _getEpochPool(timeHelpers.getCurrentMonth(), timeHelpers, constantsHolder);
// return _calculateMaximumBountyAmount(
// stagePoolSize,
// nextStage.sub(1),
// nodeIndex,
// constantsHolder,
// nodes
// );
}
Recommendation
It is suggested to remove dead code from the code base, or fully implement it before the next step.
5.8 Presence of TODO tags in the codebase
Description
A few TODO tags are present in the codebase.
Examples
code/contracts/SchainsInternal.sol:L153-L160
// TODO:
// optimize
for (uint i = 0; i + 1 < schainsAtSystem.length; i++) {
if (schainsAtSystem[i] == schainId) {
schainsAtSystem[i] = schainsAtSystem[schainsAtSystem.length.sub(1)];
break;
}
}
code/contracts/SchainsInternal.sol:L294-L301
/**
* @dev Checks whether schain name is available.
* TODO Need to delete - copy of web3.utils.soliditySha3
*/
function isSchainNameAvailable(string calldata name) external view returns (bool) {
bytes32 schainId = keccak256(abi.encodePacked(name));
return schains[schainId].owner == address(0) && !usedSchainNames[schainId];
}
code/contracts/Nodes.sol:L81-L89
// TODO: move outside the contract
struct NodeCreationParams {
string name;
bytes4 ip;
bytes4 publicIp;
uint16 port;
bytes32[2] publicKey;
uint16 nonce;
}
And a few others in test scripts.
Appendix 1 - Code Quality Recommendations
A.1.1 Inline Documentation
There are many instances of confusing function/variable names that require better documentation to increase code readability. It is recommended to add more inline documentations, preferably in NatSpec style.
Appendix 2 - Disclosure
ConsenSys Diligence (“CD”) typically receives compensation from one or more clients (the “Clients”) for performing the analysis contained in these reports (the “Reports”). The Reports may be distributed through other means, including via ConsenSys publications and other distributions.
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